From:                              Integrity Research Institute <jackie@integrityresearchinstitute.org>

Sent:                               Saturday, November 29, 2014 8:17 PM

To:                                   iri@starpower.net

Subject:                          Future Energy eNews

 

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  FUTURE ENERGY eNEWS

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 November 2014

 

Greetings!    

 

 

We are reminding every inventor, scientist, engineer, and physicist who has done significant work in the area of future energy to submit your abstract, bio, and title for a proposed slide presentation to iri@starpower.net for the upcoming Conference on Future Energy (COFE7) to be held in July, 2015 in Albuquerque NM (seewww.futurenergy.org for more details).

 

This month, we are starting the summary with the Story #5 since this is a report from the IPCC on the latest assessment of climate change, which is the main reason IRI continues to fight for breakthroughs in future energy. I still remember the guidance that was put forth in one of the very first IPCC reports that is more relevant today than ever before: With thermal forcing, the earth's climate will tend to exceed its normal limits at both ends as the climate oscillates and strives to find a new equilibrium point. When we fully understand this one point, the extreme heat the world experienced in the Summer of 2014, which was the hottest on record, and the extreme cold which the US has experienced this past November, which has broken records in some places for being the coldest, are literally predictable parts of the oscillation trend accompanying thermal instability in the climate as we continue to add more and more CO2 to the atmosphere. Though the report from the IPCC includes the threat of "irreversibility," our institute aligns itself with the scientists who like to "think big" and are mostly optimistic even in the face of danger. What the IPCC hangs its hat on is the CO2 levels which are now inching past 400 ppm from 300 ppm last century and, if it continues to exponentially increase, will start to enter the realm where CO2 becomes a "cognitive impairment" worldwide! No lie, this refers to a recent study reported in Science News (I strongly advocate the Audible version) where classrooms have been shown to reach the high hundreds of ppm of CO2 and students can no longer think clearly. What can we do? One very powerful solution has been discovered by Hydro Infra Technologies in Sweden and as our Story #1 reports, can neutralize any type of CO2, NO2, SO2 exhaust pollutant with a "Hydo Nano Gas" that is an atomic mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Besides a separate effort for absorbing the existing atmospheric CO2 to bring it back down to a safe 350 ppm level, the removal of the major contributors of greenhouse gas accumulation will be a big step in the right direction.

 

When the government starts to use the phrase "free energy" in print, which got me in big trouble in 1999, I start to take notice. Well, our Story #2 actually uses this phrase in the title of its amazing solar house experiment that succeeded in providing all of the energy needed by a family of four for a year from a mix of solar, great insulation, and a backyard shallow geothermal coil assembly.  A related Story #4 is the surprise Voltserver company startup which lets homeowners install solar in less than one hour with light, glue-on panels that withstand winds up to 110 MPH.

 

Lastly, our Story #3 is a fascinating new development that shows one more source of electricity can now be utilized. Triboelectricity is the sparks we get in the winter from carpets but that also, when harnessed in the form of triboelectric generators can be stored and create voltage in the range of 130 volts for small electronics. Perhaps this will be another electricity generator for our patented electric antioxidant clothing.

 

Sincerely,

  

Thomas Valone, PhD, PE.

Editor

 

IN THIS ISSUE

1) HYDRO NANO GAS, ANSWERING FOR NEUTRALIZING CARBON FUEL EMMISSIONS

2) NIST: YOU CAN BUILD A HOUSE THAT PROVIDES FREE ENERGY

3) FRICTION POWERED TRIBOELECTRIC GENERATORS

4) SOLAR PANELS UP AND RUNNING IN AN HOUR

5) EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IRREVERSIBLE . NEW TECHNOLOGIES ARE NEEDED

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EM Pulser 

Our best selling device 

 

 

 

PREMIER Jr.

 

 

 

 

QUICK LINKS

 

 

 

 

1)  Hydro Nano Gas: Answer for Neutralizing Carbon Fuel Emissions

By Hyroinfra Technologies Press Release, 11/20/14,

 www.hydroinfra.com

 

Ed. Note: 

This is a phenomenal breakthrough which is understated in the article below. The HNG process resembles Brown's Gas with a stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and oxygen that amazingly burns as it combines with NOx, CO, CO2, and SOx, thus denaturing the pollutants, as seen in the image below and verified by an independent testing lab, thus "neutralizing" carbon, nitrogen and sulfur exhausts. Hope they market it to the US soon. - TV 

 

 

Hydro Infra Technologies (HIT), a Swedish clean tech company based in Stockholm, has developed an innovative patent pending approach for neutralizing carbon fuel emissions by generating a novel gas called Hydro Nano Gas (HNG).



 

In spite of all the advancement happening in the energy sector, global economies are still dependent on fossil fuels as the interlinked chain of costs to completely replace the burning of fossil fuels with more clean and sustainable options is beyond the financial resources of even the richest nations. 

 

See slideshow at http://www.hydroinfra.com/en/about/validation/

 

This in turn effects the climate change scenario which has been continuously increasing as more pollution and green house gases are created from burning fossil fuels on a daily basis.

This dilemma requires a new approach with safe, cost effective and smart solutions; the solution in sight? Making any fossil fuel climate neutral - and this is exactly what HIT's Hydro Nano Gas proposes to do.

Water contains 2 basic elements, Hydrogen and Oxygen. These 2 basic elements can be split, divided and utilized. Splitting water (H2O) is a known science. But the energy costs to perform splitting outweigh the energy created from hydrogen when the Hydrogen is split from the water molecule H2O. This is where mainstream science usually closes the book on the subject.

HIT took a different approach by postulating that it was not only possible but indefinitely sustainable to split water in an energy efficient way to extract a high yield of Hydrogen at very low cost. 

 

The process of creating HNG involves pulsing an range of low energy frequencies in a very specific sequence into water. The pulsing treatment effectively manipulates the molecules to line up in a certain structure which are then put through a splitting process. The result is HNG.

Being exotic as it is, HNG displays some very different properties from normal hydrogen. For instance: HNG instantly neutralizes carbon fuel pollution emissions; HNG can be pressurized up to 2 bars; HNG combusts at a rate of 9000 meters per second while normal Hydrogen combusts at a rate 600 meters per second; oxygen values actually increase when HNG is inserted into a diesel flame; and finally, HNG acts like a vortex on fossil fuel emissions causing the flame to be pulled into the centre thus concentrating the heat and combustion properties.

Injecting HNG into a combustion chamber produces several effects that increase the burn efficiency of the fuels. HNG gasification effectively burns unburned residue/cluster while completing the burn process quicker. The long term impact of using HNG in the burning of fossil fuels can provide the balanced solution for the on going economic-climate change debate.

The new technology is also found to be effective in the treatment of polluted water; when HNG Nano bubbles are injected into polluted water, a microbe chain reaction is initiated that rapidly triggers and boosts the waters' own organic repairing process. While further testing and validation are required, the discovery creates new potential in providing solutions to critical areas of global pollution.

HIT is also developing a Smoke Eliminator for all sorts of plants and facilities. The process reduces the need for smoke analysis as it results in a clean wet scrubber technology where CO2 becomes a clean by-product ready to be reused.

Further, a miniaturized version of the standard HNG reactor will help HIT achieve its goal of gassing 9,000 cubic meters of smoke volume per second. Using Nano technology, the reactor will see the beginning of a new technology phase for each HNG application, reports HIT.

The HIT innovation story begins in the 1980's when a small team of dedicated technicians, researchers and engineers came together to innovate real world solutions based on the theoretical research conducted by Nobel prize winner Professor Yuan Tse Lee. The goal was clear - to 'crack' the Hydrogen code.

In late 2012, after years of on / off research and experimentation, they finally cracked the code and HNG was born.

HIT was formed to spread their discoveries to the world as Information Technology via joint venture partners.

HIT has also selected SGS - the worlds leading testing/validation and certification company - to be its' permanent testing-validation protocol partner, providing certification that enables HIT to expand into global markets.

 

Read more about HIT:  www.hydroinfra.com

 

back to table of contents

 

 

 

2) Build a House That Provides Free Energy to a Family of Four for an Entire Year?

By Dr. A. Hunter Fanney NIST

http://www.nist.gov/el/nzertf/ 


 

Ed. Note: Yep, it's the actual title provided by NIST


 

Speaker: Dr. A. Hunter Fanney, Engineering Laboratory/Energy and Environment Division, NIST

http://www.nist.gov/el/nzertf/

Series: Around the Bureaus

Date and Place: Thursday, October 24, 2014, Commerce Research Library, Washington DC

 

Abtstract: The house (or NZERTF: Net-Zero Energy Residential Test Facility) was constructed on NIST's Gaithersburg, Maryland campus. During the past year, this lab-in-disguise was used to demonstrate that a home similar in size, aesthetics, and amenities to those found in the Washington D.C. area can generate as much energy as it consumes on an annual basis while meeting the needs of a virtual family of four.

Learn from NIST's very own Dr. A. Hunter Fanney how the NZERTF house triumphed over last year's treacherous winter with freezing temperatures and twice the normal amount of snow. Presentation Slides (pdf format)http://library.doc.gov/custom/web/common/DrFanneyPresentation10232014.pdf

 

RELATED ARTICLE


Ed. Note: Best related article telling all of the secrets to free energy (as NIST has accomplished with this home) is below.


 

This Home Makes All Its Own Energy. Will We All Soon Be Living In One?


 

Fast Company magazine, November, 2014, http://www.fastcoexist.com/3036078/this-home-makes-all-its-own-energy

 

It's a grand experiment in "net zero" living-and it's working. But we can't move in just yet.

The 560-acre campus of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a state-of-the-art federal research facility in Gai­thersburg, Maryland, staffed by an elite group of scientists. They work out of several dozen industrial-scale buildings. But the campus also has one suburban home-a year old, 2,700 square feet, and sited smack-dab in the center of the grounds, as if a tornado sucked it up from a nearby subdivision and dropped it down intact, just inside NIST's main security gate.

 

Main Features of the Net-Zero Home

 

1.       Under the roof, thick layers of insulation boast an extreme R-value of 75.

2.       Solar panels are situated in an optimal direction, and with an ideal pitch, to collect sunlight.

3.       Beneath the siding, a black rubber membrane seals the house from outside cold and heat.

4.       Insanely efficient windows, with an ultralow U-value rating of .2, keep air leakage to a minimum.

5.       The yard covers a subterranean network of geothermal coils to collect energy.

6.       All inside lights utilize LEDs or CFLs to keep energy usage low.

 

It's not a pleasant place to live. Showers abruptly turn themselves on and off, and constant clicking noises come from everywhere. It also has a terribly unwelcoming name: the Net Zero Energy Residential Test Facility. But that's fine. Nobody is expected to move in-until one day, perhaps, when friendlier versions are built in our own neighborhoods and we all live in them. For now, it's an experiment: How close can we come to building affordable houses, on a mass scale, that produce as much energy as residents tend to consume during a given year?


 

This goal reaches beyond the increasingly common motif of "greener" living. It's aimed at the far harder ideal of true sustainability, which would deliver an enormous environmental payoff. Residences use about 21% of all the energy consumed in the U.S. They also produce 16% of U.S. greenhouse-gas emissions. Change the house, the thinking goes, and you can help change the future.

 

Early results are promising. Researchers marked the first complete year of the experiment in June, announcing that the home produced slightly more energy than real-life residents would have consumed-and that was after a particularly brutal winter.

 

But creating a "net zero" home was the easy part. Now comes the big challenge: building the house at a price people can actually afford. This house cost $652,000, or roughly $162,000 more than a conventional, energy-efficient home. That's a high price tag for clean living.  

 

How do scientists know that the house creates enough energy for real people, when no real people live inside? They fill the house with ghosts.


 

How do scientists know that the house creates enough energy for real people, when no real people live inside? They fill the house with ghosts. "We call them the Nisters. They're a family of four that's been living here for a year," says Hunter Fanney, an engineer who has managed the house since it was conceived in 2011. The Nisters' name comes from the National Institute of Standar...well, you get the idea.


 

Save for the fact that they're the product of a software program, the Nisters act like typical Americans. They comprise a mom, a dad, and two children, ages 8 and 14. "These virtual people have a minute-by-minute script of how they live their lives," Fanney explains. They get up at 6 a.m., roll out of bed to make coffee, then check the fridge. The kids sleep late and play Xbox. For the most part, the adults take eight-minute showers-which is to say, showers switch on automatically and are measured by a large bucket in the stall.


 

A variety of combined sensors and emitters stationed around the house, meanwhile, simulate the energy consumption of the coffeemaker and flat-screen TV and give off micro-bursts of heat just as these machines do in the real world. Other sensor emitters mimic the energy given off by four humans, who in combination put out the equivalent of about four 60-watt incandescent bulbs. This produces 700 measurements every minute. It's all reported back to the garage, where computer servers direct the activity.


 

But the main focus is on the performance of the house rather than the people inside. Hot water for showers comes mainly from solar water heaters on the roof. Electricity for the lights, fridge, stove, and boiler largely come from solar photovoltaic panels, also on the roof. This is all available to consumers today, though installation takes some effort.


 

The house's biggest achievement is how it limits what's known as infiltration. NIST engineers and the house's architects, the Boston firm Building Science Corporation, went to extreme lengths to keep frigid air from seeping in during the winter and air-conditioned air from seeping out during the summer. "Basically, you would like the house to be like a thermos jug," says Fanning. The house was built with thicker-than-usual walls, lined with copious amounts of high-performance insulation and state-of-the-art windows. Above all, it was wrapped, pretty much from top to bottom, in a black rubber membrane before putting on the siding and roofing.


 

The Nisters' house, therefore, doesn't "breathe" like most homes do-and without proper ventilation, a home's occupant is in trouble. The builders, Therrien Waddell, had to create special circulation systems for fresh air and utilize materials with minimal levels of what are known as volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, which get emitted from everything from floor varnish to cabinets. After all, who wants to live in a superefficient house if it makes you feel ill?


When NIST announced its results in June, proving that a smartly built house can be self-sustaining, environmentalists were thrilled. But that $162,000 premium remains a difficult issue. Some of the cost is offset by energy-bill savings (annual bill: $0), says Joshua Kneifel, an economist at NIST. "But if you're just looking at a purely economic standpoint-you own this home until you pass away-I wouldn't say that it's cost effective."

There are ways to put a more positive spin on this. The price of energy-efficient materials and skilled labor could likely drop if a market in net-zero houses scales up. Government incentives could also help offset costs and lure buyers. California has already set a goal to have all new houses be net zero by 2020. And Kneifel believes that the higher resale value of a house that effectively costs nothing to run could also make the investment attractive.

Still, scientists working here acknowledge the cost problem and have adjusted their expectations. "We've learned that you don't have to get to net zero," Fanney says, "but if you show you can significantly reduce energy use, you've gone a long way."


 

As an experiment, the Nisters' prototype home is certainly a success. It's a way to answer, definitively, a lot of energy-efficiency questions. What if you bulked up the insulation on new residential buildings? What if you built homes with a slightly different kind of interior framing that allowed for a tighter envelope? Are solar water heaters better than gas heaters? This coming year, researchers will measure the performance of various geothermal energy systems-essentially coils of fluid-filled pipes, buried in the backyard, that harness the heat energy of the earth. Perhaps that's more efficient (and cheaper) than solar.


 

But these aren't just lessons for the future. NIST research already suggests that the most logical next step for the average person building a new home is clear: bulk up on insulation, which gives the most return for every dollar spent, and forgo the hefty expense of solar panels. It won't be net zero, but it'll get you into net zero's neighborhood. When you get there, be sure to wave to the Nisters.

  

A house in order: Sensor emitters such as these are everywhere in the net-zero home-even in its fridge.

The Price of Going "Net Zero"

The government's test house cost $162,000 more to build than a home of the same size that conforms to the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), the current gold standard of energy efficiency. These are some of the reasons why.

Building systems

Net Zero: $112,000
IECC: $51,500
Difference: $60,500
Reason: Intricate plumbing, electric wiring, duplicate HVAC system, in-floor radiant heating, and pipe loops that create geothermal energy.

Concrete Pouring

Net Zero: $10,800
IECC: $10,400
Difference: $400
Reason: Additional insulation under foundation and cost of building in the 
radiant heating system.

Exterior Finishes

Net Zero: $83,900
IECC: $74,100
Difference: $9,800
Reason: Cost of attaching complex siding and energy-efficient windows.

Insulation

Net Zero: $37,800
IECC: $6,500
Difference: $31,300
Reason: High-quality insulation, sometimes double the thickness of normal houses, requires meticulous application of tape to seal.

Interior Finishes

Net Zero: $173,450
IECC: $166,950
Difference: $6,500
Reason: Basement drywall and installation.

Net-Zero Premiums

Net Zero: $30,750
IECC: $10,550
Difference: $20,200
Reason: Contractor will be slowed down because the home requires many unfamiliar, nonstandard processes and applications.

Rough Framing

Net Zero: $84,300
IECC: $64,700
Difference: $19,600
Reason: IMore steps in construction and installing insulation

 

 

 

3) Friction Powered Triboelectric Generators  

By Alexander Hellemans, IEEE SPECTRUM

Posted 

 



 

Winter approaches in the Northern Hemisphere, the air is drier, and triboelectrics, electricity caused by friction, is a phenomenon you'll probably encounter daily.

 

Engineers at KAIST are working on a better use for that harvested energy than zapping your friends and neighbors. They've come up with ananotechnology-enhanced system to power small electronics

 

Triboelectric generators (TENGs) consist essentially of two different materials that are rubbed together. Materials that like to give off electrons, such as glass or nylon, will donate them to materials that like to absorb them-materials with the highest electronegativity, such as silicon or teflon.  However, rubbing these materials together causes wear. So Zhong Lin Wang, a physicist at Georgia Tech and colleagues developed materials that generate electricity by pressing them together.  The contact surfaces of the materials are corrugated, and by pressing the materials together, the corrugated structures enmesh, causing the friction that leads to electricity generation.

 

 "By applying pressure, those two materials are contacting, and they generate charge by contact electrification. This contact mode of triboelectric nanogenerator has less mechanical degradation with excellent efficiency," says Keon Jae Lee, from the department of materials science and engineering, at KAIST in Korea. Georgia Tech announced the invention of the first such device, called a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), in 2012. Lee says that the efficiency of TENGs has been increasing exponentially.

 

Lee, Yeon Sik Jung and other researchers from KAIST and now report that by reducing the size of the surface nanostructures, they can improve the efficiency of the TENGs even further. In a TENG consisting of a Teflon layer and a silicate layer, they produced nanodots, nanogrates, and nanomeshes on the silica layer using block copolymer self-assembly technology. (Block copolymers are chain-like molecules with a repeating pattern. On a surface, they can fold-up together in such a way that a nanometer-scale pattern emerges.)

 

The resulting TENGs can produce up to 130 volts. They report a TENG simply pressed with a finger powering 45 blue 3-V LEDs connected in series.

"This is the first report that demonstrates the self-assembly phenomenon of block copolymer in triboelectric nanogenerators for the modulation of nanostructure," says Lee.  "They are very beneficial because they allow the increase of the contact area and the frictional electrification."

 

 

 

 

 

4) Solar Panels Up and Running in an Hour

By Kevin Bullis  MIT Technology Review   November 2014


Ordinarily, installing and connecting a new array of rooftop solar panels takes days, weeks, or even months because the hardware is complex and various permits are needed. Yesterday, on a frigid day in Charlestown, Massachusetts, researchers completed the process in about an hour.

 

Homeowners can install the system themselves, by gluing it to a rooftop. The permitting is handled by a combination of electronic sensors and software that communicates with local jurisdictions and utilities.

Installation and permit-related expenses currently account for more than half of the overall cost of a new solar power setup. "By simplifying the system so that it's like installing an appliance, we envision that the soft cost will be virtually eliminated," says Christian Hoepfner, director of the Fraunhofer Center for Sustainable Energy Systems, which developed the system. Doing so would lower the cost of a typical residential solar installation from $22,000 to as little as $7,500, he says.

 

"It's impressive to see how quickly the installation went up," Fouad Dagher, manager of new products and services at the utility National Grid, said after the demonstration. "It makes it easier for consumers and utilities."

 

Solar power can be dangerous if not installed properly. Heavy components may be blown off a roof if not secured properly, and solar panels can produce potentially deadly voltages if not properly grounded, and every wire protected.

 

The Fraunhofer system uses light, flexible solar panels encased in durable plastics. The panels can be securely attached to a shingled roof via an adhesive backing that anchors the panels even in winds up to 110 miles per hour.

 

The solar panels use electrical equipment, developed by the startup VoltServer, that breaks DC power into discrete, addressed packets, something like the data packets sent over the Internet. If one of these packets fails to reach its destination-for example, if someone were to touch a damaged wire, the current is instantly cut off, preventing injury-a feat demonstrated by a brave EnerVolt employee at the Charlestown demonstration when he purposely touched an exposed wire on the new solar installation.

The whole system is connected to the grid via a plug similar those used for fast-charging electric cars, which can handle high voltages safely.

 

Once plugged in, the system performs several tests to ensure it's safe. Hoepfner says the software probably does the job more consistently than inspectors would. Test information would be sent to the local utility for approval over the Web.

 

While all the hardware exists now, and will go on sale soon, the automated permitting still needs work. Fraunhofer had preapproved the system with the authorities, who'd had inspected the process ahead of time. Commercialization will require developing new standards for solar power systems.

 

Homes will also need preinstalled outlets designed for solar panels, similar to the high voltage dryer connections in new homes. For now, installing the outlet will require a trained electrician, though it can be done in just a couple of minutes via a device that can be quickly attached to a meter.

 

Meanwhile, testing is ongoing to make sure the adhesive will keep the solar panels anchored in very hot weather. Because the panels are flush with the roof, rather than mounted on racks that allow air to flow under them, they get hotter than conventional panels, which also lowers the amount of power they can produce.

 

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5) Effects of Climate Change are Irreversible

By J Warwick and Chris Mooney    Washington Post. November 2, 2014
http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/effects-of-climate-change-irreversible-un-panel-warns-in-report/2014/11/01/2d49aeec-6142-11e4-8b9e-2ccdac31a031_story.html?hpid=z1

 

 

 

The Earth is locked on an "irreversible" course of climatic disruption from the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and the impacts will only worsen unless nations agree to dramatic cuts in pollution, an international panel of climate scientists warned Sunday.

 

The planet faces a future of extreme weather, rising sea levels and melting polar ice from soaring levels of carbon dioxide and other gases, the U.N. panel said. Only an unprecedented global effort to slash emissions within a relatively short time period will prevent temperatures from crossing a threshold that scientists say could trigger far more dangerous disruptions, the panel warned.

 

"Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts," concluded the report by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which draws on contributions from thousands of scientists from around the world.

 

The report said some impacts of climate change will "continue for centuries," even if all emissions from fossil-fuel burning were to stop. The question facing governments is whether they can act to slow warming to a pace at which humans and natural ecosystems can adapt, or risk "abrupt and irreversible changes" as the atmosphere and oceans absorb ever-greater amounts of thermal energy within a blanket of heat-trapping gases, according to scientists who contributed to the report.

 

"The window of opportunity for acting in a cost-effective way - or in an effective way - is closing fast," said Michael Oppenheimer, a Princeton University geosciences professor and contributing author to the report.

 

The report is the distillation of a five-year effort to assess the latest evidence on climate change and its consequences, from direct atmospheric measurements of carbon dioxide to thousands of peer-reviewed scientific studies. The final document to emerge from the latest of five assessments since 1990, it is intended to provide a scientific grounding for world leaders who will attempt to negotiate an international climate treaty in Paris late next year.

 

While the IPCC is barred from endorsing policy, the report lays out possible scenarios and warns that the choices will grow increasingly dire if carbon emissions continue on their current record-breaking trajectory.

 

"It's not too late, but the longer you wait, the more expensive it gets," Gary Yohe, a Wesleyan University professor who also participated in the drafting of the report, said in an interview. Damage to the Earth's ecosystems is "irreversible to the extent to which we have committed ourselves, but we will commit ourselves to higher and higher and higher damages and impacts" if the world's leaders fail to act, Yohe said.

 

A succession of IPCC reports since the 1990s have drawn an ever-clearer connection between human activity and climate change. But Sunday's "synthesis report" makes the case more emphatically than before, asserting that the warming trend seen on land and in the oceans since the 1950s is "unequivocal" and that it is "extremely likely" - a term that the IPCC uses to denote a 95 percent or greater probability - that humans are the main cause.

 

"Human influence on the climate system is clear," the panel states in a 40-page summary intended for policymakers.

 

In late 2013, when the first report of this round of the IPCC's work came out, skeptics trained their attention on the contention that in recent years the rate of global warming has seemingly "paused" or slowed down. But the latest document is fairly dismissive of that idea, acknowledging that, while the rate of warming in the past 15 years has indeed been somewhat smaller than the rate since 1951, "trends based on short records are very sensitive to the beginning and end dates and do not in general reflect long-term climate trends."

 

 

 

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